Mediacyjna rola Ciemnej Triady osobowości w związku pomiędzy płcią biologiczną a problemowym piciem alkoholu wśród studentów

■ INTRODUCTION

Problematic alcohol drinking and high addiction risk among university students is a growing concern [1]. Binge drinking, characterised by high alcohol consumption over a short period, is a particular concern among college students [2]. Many students experiment with alcohol during their time in higher education. Unfortunately, this can lead to various negative consequences, including impaired judgment, academic problems, risky health behaviours, severe injury and physical harm [3]. Understanding the factors that contribute to problematic alcohol drinking among university students is crucial for developing effective prevention and intervention strategies.
Previous research has identified various factors that contribute to problematic alcohol drinking including age, genetic and environmental factors, gender, personality traits and social influences [4, 5].
In particular, problematic alcohol drinking is more prevalent among men than women [5-7]. Recent studies detected a relationship between the Dark Triad of personality and problematic alcohol drinking [8-11]. The Dark Triad refers to a set of three distinct personality traits: narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy [12] characterised by extreme self-centredness, excessive lying, manipulative tendencies, amorality, promiscuous and unfaithful behaviour, impulsivity and a lack of empathy [13]. Previous studies showed that all three Dark Triad traits are more prominent in men than in women [14, 15].
Windle [16] emphasised the need for research to concentrate on distinctive biological, psychological and social elements that could impact the effectiveness of prevention programmes aimed at reducing alcohol consumption among young people in their early years. However, there is a lack of research on the mediating role of the Dark Triad of personality in the relationship between biological sex and problematic alcohol drinking among university students. This study aims to gain insight into the mechanism of associations between the selected biological risk factor (sex differences) and psychological risk factor (individual differences in the Dark Triad personality traits) contributing to problematic alcohol drinking and alcohol addiction among young adults. Gardiner and Lawson [10] incorporated an adapted Addiction as Excessive Appetites (AEA) model within a biopsychosocial framework [17] to examine interactions between problematic alcohol drinking and the Dark Triad of personality. The AEA model assumes that alcohol addiction is a psychological process resulting from the dynamic interplay of biological, personality and social risk factors. One previous study [10] examined how Dark Triad personality traits contribute to alcohol addiction. Nevertheless, sex was not taken into account in the tested model, despite the relevance of this variable for both Dark Triad and alcohol addiction. In the present research, based on the AEA model [10], we will test the hypothesis that sex is a primary biological factor affecting both personality traits of the Dark Triad (as a personality risk factor) and problematic alcohol drinking. Our study goes beyond current knowledge by testing for the first time a model of the interplay between male sex (representing biological risk factors), dark personality traits (representing personality risk factors) and alcohol-related behavioural problems. This study aims to address this knowledge gap by examining the mediating role of the Dark Triad of personality in the relationship between sex and problematic alcohol drinking among university students from Poland.
In line with previous studies [5-7] we would like to hypothesise that men are at higher risk of alcohol addiction and problematic drinking than women (H1). Based on research [14, 15], we hypothesise that men demonstrate significantly higher levels of Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathy than women (H2). Furthermore, we expect, due to previous studies [8-11], that all three traits of the Dark Triad are positively associated with problematic alcohol drinking among university students (H3). Finally, based on the AEA model [10], we assume that the Dark Triad of personality mediates the relationships between sex and problematic alcohol drinking (H4).

■ MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study design and procedure

An online cross-sectional study was conducted in Poland between November 2020 and February 2021 during the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. The study used a snowball sampling method to collect data from students at various types of universities. The inclusion criteria were being a student of a university or college and being at least 18 years of age. There was a sample of 565 participants in the study (73.92% of the response rate). The Institutional Research Board (IRB) approved the scientific project. All participants provided informed consent through a Google Forms survey.

Measures

All variables were based on self-reported survey responses. The dependent (explained) variable was problematic alcohol use, while the independent variables included biological sex and Dark Triad personality traits.
The brief Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test (bMAST) was used to assess the severity of alcohol-related problems among university students [18]. The bMAST questionnaire consists of ten items derived from the 25-item MAST [19], with Yes or No response options (scores 0-5). The score may range from 0-29, and the higher scores higher severity of alcohol-related problems and greater risk of AUD (Alcohol Use Disorder). In the present study, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) detected a one-factor structure of the bMAST. Six items were included in the Alcohol-Related Problems (ARP) scale (items 4-6 and 8-10) when the criterion of factor loading 0.4 was applied. The reliability of ARP was McDonald’s ω = 0.69 in the present sample.
The Dirty Dozen (DD) scale was utilised to measure the Dark Triad of personality [20, 21]. The DD questionnaire contains 12 items, four for each Machiavellianism, Narcissism and Psychopathy Dark Triad component. A five-point Likert scale is used (not at all = 1, very much = 5), with a range of scores 12-60 (a higher score, a higher level of trait). In this study, the reliability was adequate for Machiavellianism (ω = 0.85), narcissism (ω = 0.83) and psychopathy (ω = 0.68).

Participants

Participants were 565 university students from various universities all over Poland, including 449 females (79.47%), ranging between 18 and 46 years of age (M = 23.25, SD = 3.96). Participants’ demographic characteristics were their age (years), gender (female, male), type of study (full-time, part-time), study major and year of study (Table I). Among students, 53 participants (9.4% of the total sample) were at high risk of alcohol addiction, considering cut-off 5 in the bMAST questionnaire [18].

Statistical analysis

A Pearson’s χ² test of independence was used to test sex differences in the risk of alcohol addiction (for cut-off bMAST > 5). Also, a Mann-Whitney U-test was performed to examine the sex differences in ARP and the Dark Triad (testing assumptions H1 and H2) since most variables violated the normality assumption. A PCA was performed to examine the factor structure of the bMAST. The Spearman’s correlations were used to check associations between ARP and Dark Triad (H3). Finally, generalised linear models (GLM) regression was used to examine H4, with the bias-corrected bootstrapping (BCa) technique for 95% Confidence Intervals (CI) and 5000 resampling. All statistical analyses were conducted using JAMOVI ver. 2.3. software.

■ RESULTS

Sex differences in problematic alcohol drinking and Dark Triad of personality

Pearson’s χ² test of independence showed significant associations between sex and risk of alcohol addiction among university students: χ²(1) = 8.41, p = 0.004, φ = 0.12. Among female students, 7.6% (n = 34) meet the criteria for alcoholism risk. Among males, 16.4% (n = 19) were found with a high risk of alcohol addiction. Male students were twice as likely to be at risk of AUD than females: OR = 2.39, 95% CI (1.31, 4.37). Sex differences in continuous variables (ARP, traits of Dark Triad) were examined using a nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test since variables violated the normality assumption and equality of variance. Male university students scored statistically higher than females in alcohol problems and all Dark Triad traits of personality (Table II), with a small effect size for alcohol-related behaviour and health, Machiavellianism, narcissism and psychopathy.

Associations between alcohol problems and the Dark Triad of personality

Associations between alcohol problems and the Dark Triad of personality were tested using Spearman’s correlation analysis (Figure 1). Alcohol-related problems are significantly and positively related to Machiavellianism (r_S = 0.17, p < 0.001) but are unrelated to narcissism (r_S = 0.05, p > 0.05) and psychopathy (r_S = 0.07, p > 0.05). Machiavellianism is positively related to narcissism (r_S = 0.53, p < 0.001) and psychopathy (r_S = 0.51, p < 0.001) at moderate levels. Narcissism is positively but weakly related to psychopathy (r_S = 0.31, p < 0.001).

Mediating effect of Dark Triad on the relationship between sex and alcohol problems

Mediation analysis was performed using GLM regression (Table III and Figure 2). The total effect of sex on ARP was significant (β = 0.12, p < 0.05). Male sex was related to high scores in all three traits of personality Dark Triad: Machiavellianism (β = 0.18, p < 0.001), narcissism (β = 0.12, p < 0.01) and psychopathy (β = 0.23, p < 0.001). Among the three traits of the Dark Triad, only Machiavellianism was positively and significantly related to alcohol problems (β = 0.23, p < 0.001). The direct effect was insignificant, suggesting complete mediation in the regression model (β = 0.08, p > 0.05). The indirect effect was significant, providing statistical support for the mediating role of Machiavellianism in the relationship between male sex and alcohol problems, b = 0.12, SE b = 0.08, 95% BCa CI: 0.09, 0.43, β = 0.04.

■ DISCUSSION

Consistent with H1 and previous studies [5-7] male students scored significantly higher than females in alcohol addiction risk (bMAST > 5) and alcohol-related problems (ARP score). However, the effect size was small for both of these sex differences. Erol and Karpyak [5] previously found that more women are lifetime abstainers, drink less, and are less likely to experience alcohol-related issues like problem drinking, alcohol-related disorders, and alcohol withdrawal symptoms when compared to men. The susceptibility of individuals to alcohol addiction can be influenced by the interactions between their biological, environmental, sociocultural and developmental characteristics [5, 22, 23]. These factors contribute to different responses to alcohol abuse and long-term impacts on the brain; they also determine whether addiction arises from drinking experiences [5, 22, 24]. Women also differ from men in distinct expectancies, motives for drinking [25] and in their use of various protective behavioural strategies [26]. Also, socioenvironmental factors, especially perceived risk, attitude towards binge drinking, and social norms are significant risk factors that differ across genders [1].
As suggested by H2 and previous research [14, 15], men scored higher in this study than women in all three scales of Dirty Dozen. The sex differences in the Dark Triad can be influenced by various factors, including gender roles and cultural or socioeconomic conditions [15, 27]. The expression of the Dark Triad traits and their sex differences can vary across different countries and socioeconomic conditions [15, 27, 28]. Sex differences appear to be more pronounced in cultures that promote more egalitarian gender roles, gender socialisation, and sociopolitical gender equity [28]. Jonason and Davis [29] found that the Dark Triad traits were linked to lower levels of femininity (particularly in psychopathy and Machiavellianism) and higher levels of masculinity (especially for narcissism and psychopathy). Consistent with evolutionary psychology, Dark Triad traits constitute an adaptive set of individual differences that promote short-term mating in men and mate-competition tactics in women [30]. Recent research has shown that men tend to score higher than women on the Dark Triad though the magnitude of sex differences varies between countries [21, 27, 29, 31].
The present findings confirmed hypothesis H3, but only with respect to one of the three Dark Triad personality traits. Based on previous research [8-11], we assumed that all three traits of the Dark Triad are positively associated with problematic alcohol drinking. However, only Machiavellianism was related positively to problematic alcohol drinking in this study. Inconsistencies in the relationship between alcohol drinking with psychopathy and narcissism were previously detected [8-11], which can be explained by cultural differences, the age and gender structure of the participants and the severity of their antisocial or pathological behaviour [32]. Also, various types of alcohol-related behaviour were examined in particular studies (AUD, excessive drinking, problematic drinking). Therefore more research is required to understand the association between alcohol-related behaviour and the Dark Triad of personality traits.
Hypothesis H4 was partially confirmed since the indirect effect of sex on problematic alcohol drinking was mediated only through Machiavellianism. Individuals high in Machiavellian traits tend to be strategic, exploitative and focused on achieving their own goals without concern for moral principles or the well-being of others [13]. Machiavellian individuals may utilise alcohol as a way to escape from feelings of emptiness, boredom or dissatisfaction [33]. Alcohol can temporarily alleviate negative emotions or provide an illusory sense of power and control, which may be appealing to those with a Machiavellian personality. Machiavellian individuals may exploit alcohol’s disinhibiting effects to manipulate social interactions and achieve personal goals. For example, they may encourage or coerce others to drink to impair their judgment and make them more susceptible to manipulation. They may also take advantage of impaired judgment and emotional states to extract information or gain control. By capitalising on alcohol’s consequences, Machiavellian individuals enhance their ability to achieve personal objectives. Machiavellian individuals are adept at managing their public image and may use alcohol consumption strategically. They may drink selectively to project an image of friendliness, enjoyment or solidarity.
Alcohol can also facilitate the establishment and strengthening of networks and connections for personal gain [34], which is an excellent opportunity to practice manipulative behaviour in those with a high Machiavellian personality trait. Moreover, our study showed that the speculations mentioned above may apply predominantly to male university students compared to females [35]. Hasin and Grant [36] indicated that the difference in alcohol disorders between males and females has decreased in recent years. Females are more likely to have internalising disorders, while males are more likely to have externalising disorders [36]. The manipulative tendencies and strategic mindset associated with Machiavellianism in men highlight the potential role it can play in shaping alcohol consumption patterns for personal gain and social manipulation. However, more research is needed to explain the present association fully.
The present study underscores the importance of biological sex and Machiavellianism in comprehending alcohol addiction and developing effective treatment strategies among university students. In particular, motivational and protective strategies, as well as intervention programmes focused on alcohol reduction, should be implemented among university students [25, 37]. Treatment may also be considered for people with elevated Dark Triad traits [38, 39]. Dark Triad antagonism can be treated using motivational interviewing, intentional change, dialectical behaviour therapy, cognitive behavioural therapy, psychodynamic approaches or pharmacologic interventions [40].
Some limitations should be indicated to prevent generalisation of the results. Although the sample size is quite large, and university students represent diverse groups from the whole of Poland and various types of universities and faculties, conventional samples and online self-reported survey forms do not allow for generalisation across the whole student sample, especially regarding possible study fields and specialisations. Moreover, there were more females than males in this sample. Further study should be focused on a more representative sample of university students in terms of sex and study fields. The research was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, and it is unknown whether the results would have been the same under other conditions. The study results have limited generalisability due to the methodology applied and the examination of only selected variables relevant to problematic alcohol use. Future research should replicate the present study using gender-specific assessments (e.g., gender role or femininity-masculinity dimension) in more gender-diverse groups (e.g., with representatives of the LGBT+ population), as well as using other self-reported measures or experimental design to assess problematic alcohol use and the Dark Triad personality traits. In addition, future research could compare the mediation model across disciplines or departments of college and university students. Additionally, a causal relationship should be treated with caution because of the study’s cross-sectional design.

■ CONCLUSIONS

Our research was designed to understand the underlying mechanisms of the interplay between biological sex and Dark Triad personality traits on problematic alcohol use to develop personalised prevention and treatment recommendations for men and women in the future.
The present study revealed that male university students exhibit higher levels of problematic alcohol consumption and all three Dark Triad personality traits compared to their female counterparts. A mediation analysis based on the AEA model was conducted in this study to investigate the influence of biological sex and Dark Triad trait psycholo¬gical, social and cultural variations on alcohol-related problems among university students. Our findings suggest that only Machiavellianism can account for the observed associations. In particular, male university students tend to exhibit elevated levels of Machiavellianism, which, in turn, increases their risk of engaging in harmful and problematic drinking behaviours. Therefore it is crucial to consider both Machiavellianism traits and harmful alcohol consumption when implementing prevention and intervention strategies on college campuses particularly among male students.

Conflict of interest/Konflikt interesów

None declared./Nie występuje.

Financial support/Finansowanie

None declared./Nie zadeklarowano.

Ethics/Etyka

The University Committee for Research Ethics at the University of Opole approved the scientific project (No. 6/2021).
Na przeprowadzenie badania wyraziła zgodę Uczelniana Komisja do spraw Etyki Badań Naukowych na Uniwersytecie Opolskim (nr 6/2021).

The work described in this article has been carried out in accordance with the Code of Ethics of the World Medical Association (Declaration of Helsinki) on medical research involving human subjects, Uniform Requirements for manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals and the ethical principles defined in the Farmington Consensus of 1997.
Treści przedstawione w pracy są zgodne z zasadami Deklaracji Helsińskiej odnoszącymi się do badań z udziałem ludzi, ujednoliconymi wymaganiami dla czasopism biomedycznych oraz z zasadami etycznymi określonymi w Porozumieniu z Farmington w 1997 roku.

References